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  <div class="section" id="object-protocol">
<span id="object"></span><h1>Object Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#object-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Print">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_Print</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, FILE<em>&nbsp;*fp</em>, int<em>&nbsp;flags</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Print" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Print an object <em>o</em>, on file <em>fp</em>.  Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on error.  The flags argument
is used to enable certain printing options.  The only option currently supported
is <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_PRINT_RAW</span></tt>; if given, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#str" title="str"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">str()</span></tt></a> of the object is written
instead of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/repr.html#module-repr" title="repr: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">repr()</span></tt></a>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_HasAttr">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_HasAttr</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*attr_name</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_HasAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> if <em>o</em> has the attribute <em>attr_name</em>, and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt> otherwise.  This
is equivalent to the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">hasattr(o,</span> <span class="pre">attr_name)</span></tt>.  This function
always succeeds.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_HasAttrString">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_HasAttrString</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, const char<em>&nbsp;*attr_name</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_HasAttrString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> if <em>o</em> has the attribute <em>attr_name</em>, and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt> otherwise.  This
is equivalent to the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">hasattr(o,</span> <span class="pre">attr_name)</span></tt>.  This function
always succeeds.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_GetAttr">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_GetAttr</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*attr_name</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_GetAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Retrieve an attribute named <em>attr_name</em> from object <em>o</em>. Returns the attribute
value on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o.attr_name</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_GetAttrString">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_GetAttrString</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, const char<em>&nbsp;*attr_name</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_GetAttrString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Retrieve an attribute named <em>attr_name</em> from object <em>o</em>. Returns the attribute
value on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python
expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o.attr_name</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_GenericGetAttr">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_GenericGetAttr</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*name</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_GenericGetAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Generic attribute getter function that is meant to be put into a type
object&#8217;s <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">tp_getattro</span></tt> slot.  It looks for a descriptor in the dictionary
of classes in the object&#8217;s MRO as well as an attribute in the object&#8217;s
<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></tt></a> (if present).  As outlined in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#descriptors"><em>Implementing Descriptors</em></a>,
data descriptors take preference over instance attributes, while non-data
descriptors don&#8217;t.  Otherwise, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.AttributeError" title="exceptions.AttributeError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></tt></a> is raised.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_SetAttr">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_SetAttr</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*attr_name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*v</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_SetAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Set the value of the attribute named <em>attr_name</em>, for object <em>o</em>, to the value
<em>v</em>. Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o.attr_name</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_SetAttrString">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_SetAttrString</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, const char<em>&nbsp;*attr_name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*v</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_SetAttrString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Set the value of the attribute named <em>attr_name</em>, for object <em>o</em>, to the value
<em>v</em>. Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o.attr_name</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_GenericSetAttr">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_GenericSetAttr</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*value</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_GenericSetAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Generic attribute setter function that is meant to be put into a type
object&#8217;s <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">tp_setattro</span></tt> slot.  It looks for a data descriptor in the
dictionary of classes in the object&#8217;s MRO, and if found it takes preference
over setting the attribute in the instance dictionary. Otherwise, the
attribute is set in the object&#8217;s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></tt></a> (if present).
Otherwise, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.AttributeError" title="exceptions.AttributeError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></tt></a> is raised and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> is returned.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_DelAttr">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_DelAttr</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*attr_name</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_DelAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Delete attribute named <em>attr_name</em>, for object <em>o</em>. Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on failure.
This is the equivalent of the Python statement <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o.attr_name</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_DelAttrString">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_DelAttrString</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, const char<em>&nbsp;*attr_name</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_DelAttrString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Delete attribute named <em>attr_name</em>, for object <em>o</em>. Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on failure.
This is the equivalent of the Python statement <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o.attr_name</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_RichCompare">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_RichCompare</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o2</em>, int<em>&nbsp;opid</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_RichCompare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Compare the values of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> using the operation specified by <em>opid</em>,
which must be one of <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_LT</span></tt>, <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_LE</span></tt>, <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_EQ</span></tt>,
<tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_NE</span></tt>, <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_GT</span></tt>, or <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_GE</span></tt>, corresponding to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></tt>,
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">==</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">!=</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></tt>, or <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></tt> respectively. This is the equivalent of
the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">op</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></tt>, where <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">op</span></tt> is the operator corresponding
to <em>opid</em>. Returns the value of the comparison on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_RichCompareBool">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_RichCompareBool</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o2</em>, int<em>&nbsp;opid</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_RichCompareBool" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Compare the values of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> using the operation specified by <em>opid</em>,
which must be one of <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_LT</span></tt>, <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_LE</span></tt>, <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_EQ</span></tt>,
<tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_NE</span></tt>, <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_GT</span></tt>, or <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_GE</span></tt>, corresponding to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></tt>,
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">==</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">!=</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></tt>, or <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></tt> respectively. Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on error,
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt> if the result is false, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> otherwise. This is the equivalent of the
Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">op</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></tt>, where <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">op</span></tt> is the operator corresponding to
<em>opid</em>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<div class="admonition note">
<p class="first admonition-title">Note</p>
<p class="last">If <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> are the same object, <a class="reference internal" href="#PyObject_RichCompareBool" title="PyObject_RichCompareBool"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject_RichCompareBool()</span></tt></a>
will always return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> for <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_EQ</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt> for <tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_NE</span></tt>.</p>
</div>
<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Cmp">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_Cmp</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o2</em>, int<em>&nbsp;*result</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Cmp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p id="index-0">Compare the values of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> using a routine provided by <em>o1</em>, if one
exists, otherwise with a routine provided by <em>o2</em>.  The result of the comparison
is returned in <em>result</em>.  Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on failure.  This is the equivalent of
the Python statement <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">result</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">cmp(o1,</span> <span class="pre">o2)</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Compare">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_Compare</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o2</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Compare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p id="index-1">Compare the values of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> using a routine provided by <em>o1</em>, if one
exists, otherwise with a routine provided by <em>o2</em>.  Returns the result of the
comparison on success.  On error, the value returned is undefined; use
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></tt></a> to detect an error.  This is equivalent to the Python
expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">cmp(o1,</span> <span class="pre">o2)</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Repr">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_Repr</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-2">Compute a string representation of object <em>o</em>.  Returns the string
representation on success, <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">repr(o)</span></tt>.  Called by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/repr.html#module-repr" title="repr: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">repr()</span></tt></a> built-in function and
by reverse quotes.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Str">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_Str</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Str" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-3">Compute a string representation of object <em>o</em>.  Returns the string
representation on success, <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">str(o)</span></tt>.  Called by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#str" title="str"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">str()</span></tt></a> built-in function and
by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#print"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal"><span class="pre">print</span></tt></a> statement.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Bytes">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_Bytes</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p id="index-4">Compute a bytes representation of object <em>o</em>.  In 2.x, this is just a alias
for <a class="reference internal" href="#PyObject_Str" title="PyObject_Str"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject_Str()</span></tt></a>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Unicode">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_Unicode</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Unicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-5">Compute a Unicode string representation of object <em>o</em>.  Returns the Unicode
string representation on success, <em>NULL</em> on failure. This is the equivalent of
the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">unicode(o)</span></tt>.  Called by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#unicode" title="unicode"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">unicode()</span></tt></a> built-in
function.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_IsInstance">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_IsInstance</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*inst</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*cls</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_IsInstance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> if <em>inst</em> is an instance of the class <em>cls</em> or a subclass of
<em>cls</em>, or <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt> if not.  On error, returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> and sets an exception.  If
<em>cls</em> is a type object rather than a class object, <a class="reference internal" href="#PyObject_IsInstance" title="PyObject_IsInstance"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject_IsInstance()</span></tt></a>
returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> if <em>inst</em> is of type <em>cls</em>.  If <em>cls</em> is a tuple, the check will
be done against every entry in <em>cls</em>. The result will be <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> when at least one
of the checks returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt>, otherwise it will be <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt>. If <em>inst</em> is not a
class instance and <em>cls</em> is neither a type object, nor a class object, nor a
tuple, <em>inst</em> must have a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#instance.__class__" title="instance.__class__"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">__class__</span></tt></a> attribute &#8212; the
class relationship of the value of that attribute with <em>cls</em> will be used
to determine the result of this function.</p>
<p class="versionadded">
<span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.1.</span></p>
<p class="versionchanged">
<span class="versionmodified">Changed in version 2.2: </span>Support for a tuple as the second argument added.</p>
</dd></dl>

<p>Subclass determination is done in a fairly straightforward way, but includes a
wrinkle that implementors of extensions to the class system may want to be aware
of.  If <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal"><span class="pre">A</span></tt> and <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal"><span class="pre">B</span></tt> are class objects, <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal"><span class="pre">B</span></tt> is a subclass of
<tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal"><span class="pre">A</span></tt> if it inherits from <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal"><span class="pre">A</span></tt> either directly or indirectly.  If
either is not a class object, a more general mechanism is used to determine the
class relationship of the two objects.  When testing if <em>B</em> is a subclass of
<em>A</em>, if <em>A</em> is <em>B</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#PyObject_IsSubclass" title="PyObject_IsSubclass"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject_IsSubclass()</span></tt></a> returns true.  If <em>A</em> and <em>B</em>
are different objects, <em>B</em>&#8216;s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#class.__bases__" title="class.__bases__"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></tt></a> attribute is searched in
a depth-first fashion for <em>A</em> &#8212; the presence of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#class.__bases__" title="class.__bases__"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></tt></a>
attribute is considered sufficient for this determination.</p>
<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_IsSubclass">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_IsSubclass</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*derived</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*cls</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_IsSubclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> if the class <em>derived</em> is identical to or derived from the class
<em>cls</em>, otherwise returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt>.  In case of an error, returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt>. If <em>cls</em>
is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in <em>cls</em>. The result will
be <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> when at least one of the checks returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt>, otherwise it will be
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt>. If either <em>derived</em> or <em>cls</em> is not an actual class object (or tuple),
this function uses the generic algorithm described above.</p>
<p class="versionadded">
<span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.1.</span></p>
<p class="versionchanged">
<span class="versionmodified">Changed in version 2.3: </span>Older versions of Python did not support a tuple as the second argument.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyCallable_Check">
int <tt class="descname">PyCallable_Check</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyCallable_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Determine if the object <em>o</em> is callable.  Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> if the object is callable
and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt> otherwise.  This function always succeeds.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Call">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_Call</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*callable_object</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*args</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*kw</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Call" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-6">Call a callable Python object <em>callable_object</em>, with arguments given by the
tuple <em>args</em>, and named arguments given by the dictionary <em>kw</em>. If no named
arguments are needed, <em>kw</em> may be <em>NULL</em>. <em>args</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>, use an
empty tuple if no arguments are needed. Returns the result of the call on
success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">apply(callable_object,</span> <span class="pre">args,</span> <span class="pre">kw)</span></tt> or <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">callable_object(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kw)</span></tt>.</p>
<p class="versionadded">
<span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.2.</span></p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_CallObject">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_CallObject</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*callable_object</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*args</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_CallObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-7">Call a callable Python object <em>callable_object</em>, with arguments given by the
tuple <em>args</em>.  If no arguments are needed, then <em>args</em> may be <em>NULL</em>.  Returns
the result of the call on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent
of the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">apply(callable_object,</span> <span class="pre">args)</span></tt> or
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">callable_object(*args)</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_CallFunction">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_CallFunction</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*callable</em>, char<em>&nbsp;*format</em>, ...<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_CallFunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-8">Call a callable Python object <em>callable</em>, with a variable number of C arguments.
The C arguments are described using a <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></tt></a> style format
string.  The format may be <em>NULL</em>, indicating that no arguments are provided.
Returns the result of the call on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the
equivalent of the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">apply(callable,</span> <span class="pre">args)</span></tt> or
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">callable(*args)</span></tt>. Note that if you only pass <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject"><tt class="xref c c-type docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></tt></a> args,
<a class="reference internal" href="#PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs" title="PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs()</span></tt></a> is a faster alternative.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_CallMethod">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_CallMethod</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, char<em>&nbsp;*method</em>, char<em>&nbsp;*format</em>, ...<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_CallMethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Call the method named <em>method</em> of object <em>o</em> with a variable number of C
arguments.  The C arguments are described by a <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></tt></a> format
string that should  produce a tuple.  The format may be <em>NULL</em>, indicating that
no arguments are provided. Returns the result of the call on success, or <em>NULL</em>
on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o.method(args)</span></tt>.
Note that if you only pass <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject"><tt class="xref c c-type docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></tt></a> args,
<a class="reference internal" href="#PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs" title="PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs()</span></tt></a> is a faster alternative.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*callable</em>, ..., NULL<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Call a callable Python object <em>callable</em>, with a variable number of
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject"><tt class="xref c c-type docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></tt></a> arguments.  The arguments are provided as a variable number
of parameters followed by <em>NULL</em>. Returns the result of the call on success, or
<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
<p class="versionadded">
<span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.2.</span></p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*name</em>, ..., NULL<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Calls a method of the object <em>o</em>, where the name of the method is given as a
Python string object in <em>name</em>.  It is called with a variable number of
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject"><tt class="xref c c-type docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></tt></a> arguments.  The arguments are provided as a variable number
of parameters followed by <em>NULL</em>. Returns the result of the call on success, or
<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
<p class="versionadded">
<span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.2.</span></p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Hash">
long <tt class="descname">PyObject_Hash</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Hash" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p id="index-9">Compute and return the hash value of an object <em>o</em>.  On failure, return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt>.
This is the equivalent of the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">hash(o)</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_HashNotImplemented">
long <tt class="descname">PyObject_HashNotImplemented</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_HashNotImplemented" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Set a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.TypeError" title="exceptions.TypeError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></tt></a> indicating that <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">type(o)</span></tt> is not hashable and return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt>.
This function receives special treatment when stored in a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></tt> slot,
allowing a type to explicitly indicate to the interpreter that it is not
hashable.</p>
<p class="versionadded">
<span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.6.</span></p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_IsTrue">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_IsTrue</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_IsTrue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> if the object <em>o</em> is considered to be true, and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt> otherwise.
This is equivalent to the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">o</span></tt>.  On failure, return
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Not">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_Not</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Not" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">0</span></tt> if the object <em>o</em> is considered to be true, and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">1</span></tt> otherwise.
This is equivalent to the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">o</span></tt>.  On failure, return
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Type">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_Type</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-10">When <em>o</em> is non-<em>NULL</em>, returns a type object corresponding to the object type
of object <em>o</em>. On failure, raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.SystemError" title="exceptions.SystemError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></tt></a> and returns <em>NULL</em>.  This
is equivalent to the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">type(o)</span></tt>. This function increments the
reference count of the return value. There&#8217;s really no reason to use this
function instead of the common expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o-&gt;ob_type</span></tt>, which returns a
pointer of type <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><tt class="xref c c-type docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject*</span></tt></a>, except when the incremented reference
count is needed.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_TypeCheck">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_TypeCheck</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em>&nbsp;*type</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_TypeCheck" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is of type <em>type</em> or a subtype of <em>type</em>.  Both
parameters must be non-<em>NULL</em>.</p>
<p class="versionadded">
<span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.2.</span></p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Length">
Py_ssize_t <tt class="descname">PyObject_Length</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt id="PyObject_Size">
Py_ssize_t <tt class="descname">PyObject_Size</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p id="index-11">Return the length of object <em>o</em>.  If the object <em>o</em> provides either the sequence
and mapping protocols, the sequence length is returned.  On error, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> is
returned.  This is the equivalent to the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">len(o)</span></tt>.</p>
<p class="versionchanged">
<span class="versionmodified">Changed in version 2.5: </span>These functions returned an <tt class="xref c c-type docutils literal"><span class="pre">int</span></tt> type. This might require
changes in your code for properly supporting 64-bit systems.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_GetItem">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_GetItem</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*key</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_GetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return element of <em>o</em> corresponding to the object <em>key</em> or <em>NULL</em> on failure.
This is the equivalent of the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o[key]</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_SetItem">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_SetItem</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*key</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*v</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_SetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Map the object <em>key</em> to the value <em>v</em>.  Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on failure.  This is the
equivalent of the Python statement <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">o[key]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_DelItem">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_DelItem</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*key</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_DelItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Delete the mapping for <em>key</em> from <em>o</em>.  Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on failure. This is the
equivalent of the Python statement <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o[key]</span></tt>.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_AsFileDescriptor">
int <tt class="descname">PyObject_AsFileDescriptor</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_AsFileDescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Derives a file descriptor from a Python object.  If the object is an integer or
long integer, its value is returned.  If not, the object&#8217;s <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></tt> method
is called if it exists; the method must return an integer or long integer, which
is returned as the file descriptor value.  Returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt> on failure.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_Dir">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_Dir</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_Dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is equivalent to the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">dir(o)</span></tt>, returning a (possibly
empty) list of strings appropriate for the object argument, or <em>NULL</em> if there
was an error.  If the argument is <em>NULL</em>, this is like the Python <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">dir()</span></tt>,
returning the names of the current locals; in this case, if no execution frame
is active then <em>NULL</em> is returned but <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></tt></a> will return false.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="PyObject_GetIter">
<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <tt class="descname">PyObject_GetIter</tt><big>(</big><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em>&nbsp;*o</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#PyObject_GetIter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is equivalent to the Python expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">iter(o)</span></tt>. It returns a new
iterator for the object argument, or the object  itself if the object is already
an iterator.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.TypeError" title="exceptions.TypeError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></tt></a> and returns <em>NULL</em> if the object cannot be
iterated.</p>
</dd></dl>

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